Glossary of terms
B
Blend errors are due to the incorrect combination of different elements or constructions in the target language.
In general, blends occur at the sentence level due to confusion of syntactic structures (grammar errors):
DAK: estudio / *algo como se llama / &eh / Estudios de cultura (POLMA2_2) [Correction: algo que se llama / algo como]
A word or an expression from a foreign language, not from Spanish. Borrowings are communicative strategies that learners use when having difficulties in remembering a term in a second language. These strategies are related to code-switching.
In this analysis, only those terms without morphological adaptation to Spanish (see Coinage) were considered borrowings. Borrowings are classified as lexical interlinguistic errors.
AIS: se llama &u [/] un *roast /// [Correction: asado] (ENGWA2)
C
A calque is a literal translation of a foreign expression. The result is a neologism or a nonexistent construction.
Calques are interlinguistic phenomena, and they can be lexical (the form is calqued) and semantic (the meaning is calqued).
There are also syntactic calques, i.e. sentence structures resulting from a direct translation to Spanish. However, within this research, calques are restricted to errors affecting lexical units (words, idioms or expressions).
SOR: [<] <no me> gusta porque es un mezcla de → / &eh ¿ *frutas / de mare ? [Correction: marisco] (ENGWB1_2)
(calque from French fruits de mer, or from Italian frutti di mare)
Coherence errors affect the logic of the contents in the utteranc e. They occur at the pragmatics-discourse level.
For example, a negation may contradict a previous statement:
[The learner is speaking about the food at the university and says that he often buys a sandwich.]
FIN: [<] <pero> / a veces cuando no tengo comida y / pues no [/] no tenía tiempo para → / cocinarlo o algo como así //
ENT: hhh {%act: assent} ///
FIN: ¬ no (?) compro /// (ENGMB1)
Errors producing ambiguity were also classified within this class:
KRI: siempre habló {%pho: [a.'blo]; %com: syllabification} / con / *ello / en / España /// (GERWA2)
(It is not clear whom she is referring to: Spanish or foreign students.)
This class gathers errors affecting the joining of constituents in the clause (discourse errors).
First, there are errors concerning connectors or discourse markers:
FCH: ahora mi contracto es &ah [/] está solo para → tres años //
ENT: sí ///
FCH: ¬ *pues / ahora son → dos años más /// [Correction: así que, entonces] (FREMA2)
Secondly, errors may result from omission, unnecessary use, or misselection of anaphoric or deictic pronouns:
YTO: pizzería / *este día / &mm estaba {%com: syllabification: es-taba} cerrado [Correction: ese día] (JAPWB1_3)
Finally, errors may be caused by the change of past tense to present tense (or vice versa):
YTO: &eh / esto / el / primer lugar / dos / chicos / &eh vienen / a → restaurante / y → / preguntaron {%com: syllabification: pregun-taron} [/] preguntó un chico → [/] *preguntó (JAPWB1_3)
It is a neologism or misformation producing a nonexistent word form in the target language. Coinages may be due to L1 (or L3) interference. Learners often use the root of the term in that language, but adapt it to Spanish morphology:
FAN: ponen los huevos / como una *omeleta (FREWB1)
(‘tortilla’, from French omelette)
At other times, the learner creates a nonexistent word, but there not seems to be L1/L3 interference:
JAS: [<] <pero ese [/] es> este también pepino xxx como es / &mm / &salt [/] *saltera ... (FINWA2)
Coinages show the creativity of the second language learning process.
A collocation is a frequent co-occurrence of two lexical units fixed by usage: e.g. perro ('dog') + ladrar ('to bark'), darse + una ducha ('to take a shower').
British linguist John R. Firth established the concept of collocation in the years 50 of the 20th century. It refers to a kind of syntagmatic or formal relation between words, not a semantic relation.
In every collocation there is a node or a base word (generally a verb or a noun), and a collocative, which selects the node (respectively, a noun or an adjective).
These kinds of errors occur at the lexical level.
REM: lluvia / muy *pequeñita [Correction: fina, ligera] (FREMB1)
Errors may affect the expression of comparison (e.g. superiority or inferiority):
THO: creo que comen más sano / *como yo [Correction: más sano que] (GERMA2)
This type of errors are caused by the unnecessary use of the conditional tense, or the omission in obligatory contexts:
AMA: la única facultad que tenería [/] tenía / &eh / plazas / <para> /
ENT: [<] <hhh {%act: assent}> ///
AMA: ¬ mi estudio *sería la Autónoma /// [Correction: era] (PORWB1)
Conjugation errors may affect the morphology of the verb due to misformation:
AIS: está *piensando [Correction: pensando] (ENGWA2)
Conjugation errors may be also due to incorrect choice of verb form (sometimes due to analogy):
FIN: no *estudie mucho / en Inglaterra [Correction: estudié] (ENGMB1)
Both types of conjugation errors are generally intralinguistic (developmental) errors.
D
Discourse markers are used to link and organize elements or utterances in the discourse or build the conversation.
It is a category defined at text or discourse level. Different categories from the traditional grammar can be discourse markers: e.g. conjunctions (sin embargo), adverbs (bien), adjectives (bueno), interjections (¿eh?), verbs (¿sabes?), and multiword expressions or idioms (con todo, es decir).
Discourse markers are often more independent in the sentence, as they can appear in almost any position (this varies among different markers). However, some of them may also be considered the sentence connectors.
Furthermore, some markers can accomplish different functions. For example, bueno can introduce a change of topic or a rectification, express the acceptance of something said by the intelocutor, or even resignation.
José Portolés and Mª. Antonia Martín Zorraquino (1999) proposed a classification of discourse markers according to their function:
1. Information structurers: e.g. en primer lugar, por cierto, or pues.
2. Connectors: e.g. asimismo, además, en cambio, por el contrario, or entonces.
3. Reformulators: e.g. es decir, esto es, quiero decir, en todo caso, de todas maneras, or en conclusión.
4. Argumentative operators: e.g. por ejemplo, en concreto, en el fondo, or de hecho.
5. Conversational markers: e.g. evidentemente, por supuesto, de acuerdo, ¡hombre!, or mira.
Interlinguistic factors (interference or negative transfer) may cause errors:
ENT: y ¿ qué otras lenguas hablas aparte del [/] <del español> ?
THO: [<] <&ah> / a [/] *al primero alemán &ah como idioma materna [Correction: primero; it may be a calque from German zuerst] (GERMA2)
E
The etiology is the cause of the error. Errors can be due to foreign language influence (interlinguistic errors), L2 acquisition strategies (intralinguistic or development errors), and other causes (e.g. teaching-induced errors).
In this project, three tags were used to classify errors according to their etiology: 1. interlinguistic; 2. intralinguistic; and 3. unknown. Errors that could be either interlinguistic or intralinguistic were tagged as unknown.
F
False friends (or false cognates) are lexical errors that occur when words exhibit formal similarity between languages, but their meaning is very different in each language. For example, the verb realizar means 'to make, to do' (‘efectuar, hacer’) in Spanish, but to realize means 'to notice' (‘darse cuenta') in English.
MSU: [<] <y> / ha [/] &rea [/] *realicé que → / había &o [/] &mm &mm [/] me lo había olvidado (JAPWB1_2) [Correction: me di cuenta]
A formula is an invariable, lexicalized construction that expresses a specific meaning or communicative function. They are usually pragmatically marked. For example, ¡buenos días! ('good morning!') is used to greet somebody.
Some linguists (M. Seco, O. Andrés and G. Ramos, 1999) distinguish between:
1. Formula at the sentence level: it is similar to an utterance (for example, lo siento is used to apologize). This type of formula is not always autonomous.
2. Expletive or redundant formula: this type of construction is practically meaningless is usually added at the end of the utterance. Expletive formulas are more frequent in spoken language (for example, o algo así expresses vagueness).
The following is an error affecting a formula in spoken language:
JHA: creo que la gente no me / gustaba *o algo (FREWA2)
[Correction: o algo así]
Some grammar errors can be due to the unnecessary use of the future tense (or vice versa):
EME: [<] <pero> / cuando estás aquí // no sé // llevas un tiempo como → / un mes o dos meses / &eh tú *estarás acostumbrada / &mm y → es más / fácil /// [Correction: estás] (TURWB1)
G
Gender assignment errors affect the selection of masculine or feminine. In this project, these deviations are lexical errors, as gender is considered a feature of the noun:
THO: español es *una importante idioma [Correction: un idioma importante] (GERMA2)
In this context, the error is caused by incorrect choice of feminine. The adjective or the determiner is also wrongly used in feminine (due to gender agreement).
These errors may be interlinguistic if the incorrect gender assignment is due to transfer from the mother tongue (L1) or another foreign language (L3). For example, *la error (an error made by a French learner) is due to L1 transfer (la erreur is feminine in French).
Gender errors can also be intralinguistic. For example, learners often overgeneralize rules and always assign the feminine gender to all nouns ending in –a.
In this project, gender errors are distinguished from gender agreement errors (at the grammar level). Gender agreement errors are made when a noun or a pronoun do not agree with an adjective, a modifier or a determiner:
MSU: la comida típica / y / la más / *famoso [Correction: famosa] (JAPWB1_2)
Other gender errors are misformations due to the regularization of the -o/-a suffix in exceptional cases. In our analysis, this type of gender error seemed more related to morphology, and was thus classified at the grammar level:
LIU: pregunto / &eh / mi *profesoro [Correction: profesor] (CHIWA2_1)
This category includes grammar errors occurred when a noun or a pronoun do not agree in masculine or feminine gender with the adjective or the determiner that modifies it:
MSU: la comida típica / y / la más / *famoso [Correction: famosa] (JAPWB1_2)
In this project, gender agreement errors are distinguished from those affecting the assignment of masculine or feminine gender of a noun. Gender assignment errors are classified as gender errors (at the lexical level). A noun phrase can be correct with regard to the gender agreement of the elements. However, gender assignment can be incorrect (feminine instead of masculine, or vice versa):
THO: español es *una importante idioma [Correction: un idioma importante] (GERMA2)
H
This type of errors are due to misselection or confusion between the verb expressing existence (haber) and ser or estar. Haber errors were classified as grammar errors. Often, there is a blend of structures:
REM: y dentro *había la gente [Correction: había gente / estaba la gente] (FREMB1)
Chinese learners usually confuse haber and tener. This is due to the Chinese language, since the same particle can be used to express possession and existence:
LIU: quizá / allí / *tiene → mesa /// [Correction: hay] (CHIWA2_1)
These deviations were also included within this class (haber errors).
I
This category gathers grammar errors affecting the prepositional complements of verbs, adjectives or adverbs, or prepositions in idioms. For errors concerning the general use of prepositions, see non-idiomatic preposition errors.
Sonsoles Fernández's criterion (1997: 159) was followed to distinguish between general and idiomatic use of prepositions.
MSU: se tarda / solo / treinta minutos / *a ir a Tokio (JAPWB1_2) [Correction: se tarda en]
Errors involving the subjunctive mood usually affect the negative form or the 3rd person of the verb:
MAR: y mi madre / siempre me dice como // por favor // no → [/] no *come → / la comida para → / animales [Correction: comas] (JAPWB1_2)
This type of errors involve the use of subjunctive mood in simple or subordinate clauses:
LAU: y mi amiga / &eh / *conozca a todo el mundo en Valencia [Correction: conoce] (HUNWA2)
In the Second Language Acquisition research community, interlanguage refers to the learners' linguist system, which develops gradually in successive stages to full competence in the target language.
L. Selinker coined the term interlanguage, which is the most frequently used name. However, the concept has also been given the names of transitory competence or idiosyncratic dialect (S. P. Corder), and approximate system (W. Nemser, 1971).
Among the characteristics of the interlanguage, linguists have pointed out its variability, its idiosyncratic character (each learner has a characteristic system), or its systematicity (with regard to the rules that the learner is trying to use, or the rules from learners' mother tongue or another foreign language).
Interlinguistic errors are caused by interference (negative transfer) of elements or structures from the mother tongue (L1) or another language (L3).
In this project, the following types of deviations were considered interlinguistic errors:
1. Errors due to unnecessary words or incorrect choice of elements that exist in the L1/L3 (but not in the L2). For example, borrowings at the lexical level (*fast food, 'comida rápida'), coinages (*crocante, 'crujiente', from French croquant), or calques (*como así, 'así', from English like that). When learners translate from the L1/L3 into Spanish, they often use incorrect syntactic structures:
FAN: *un otro idioma /// (French: une autre langue) (FREWB1)
JUL: dice que no es posible *de entrar (French: il n’est pas possible d’entrer) (FREWA2)
2. Errors caused by the lack of an element or a distinction in the L1. For example, article omission by learners whose L1 lacks this category (Polish, Japanese, or Chinese):
DAK: &p [/] pues Ø chicos van a → / pizzería // [Correction: los chicos] (POLMA2_2)
Ser/estar errors were also considered interlinguistic. This distinction does not exists in many other languages, as generally one verb expresses both meanings: e.g. to be (English), être (French), or sein (German).
Other contrasts in Spanish language were also considered interlinguistic errors: e.g. indicative and subjunctive mood, or past perfect and simple past.
This class includes prosodic errors (at the Pronunciation level) caused by an incorrect intonation pattern.
Sometimes, learners of Spanish do not make the interrogative intonation, and the sentence can be misinterpreted as an affirmative utterance:
MSU: me / preguntaba como / &ah // ¿ no tienes / otra tarjeta como pasaporte ? ↓ (JAPWB1_2)
Errors in indirect speech may be due to:
·Unnecessary use or incorrect choice of conjunction.
·Incorrect or lack of tense agreement between the verbs.
·Incorrect expression of spatial or temporal references (e.g. in adverbs or demonstratives).
These errors are classified at the grammar level.
LIU: &eh / el hombre / &mm dice Ø / su restaurante muy bien / muy rico /// [Correction: dice que...] (CHIWA2_1)
Intralinguistic errors (or developmental errors) are due to overgeneralization, simplification, or incorrect application of rules, among others.
Intralinguistic deviations are similar to errors made by children in the first language acquisition process. For example:
-Wrong formation of the participle in –ado/-ido in irregular forms (*escribido/escrito), or use of the regular root for irregular forms (*ponieron/pusieron).
JUL: *ponieron / ropa un poco → / &mm / pues / no muy bien vestido /// [Correction: se pusieron] (FREWA2)
-Diphthongization in verbs (pensando/*piensando).
-Generalization of suffix -a for the feminine gender (even in exceptional cases such as el idioma).
THO: español es *una importante idioma [Correction: un idioma importante] (GERMA2)
L
A sequence of several words that refer to a concept and are used instead of the correct term or word.
A lexical periphrasis (also called circumlocution) is a communicative strategy used by learners when they do not know a word. Other terms are used to describe that word (descriptive periphrasis) or to convey an approximate meaning (approximation).
MSU: pero / podemos ir a → / la *tienda de hamburguesa (JAPWB1_2) [Correction: hamburguesería]
M
It is a lexical confusion between very similar words.
According to Fat and Cutler (1977; see, Hernández Fernández, 2004), the three characteristics of a malapropism are: first, that both word exist in the language; second, that their meanings are not related; and third, that they have a similar pronunciation (sometimes, the same number of syllables).
ADC: <hhh {%act: laugh} / entonces {%pho: [en'tonses]}> ///
ENT: [<] <o sea que / les convencisteis> ///
ADC: sí sí sí / es → &eh / &convec [/] <*convertimos> /// (POLMB1)
Malapropism errors support the hypothesis that the mental lexicon is phonologically organized (Fat and Cutler, 1977; Hernández Fernández, 2004).
Misformation errors produce nonexistent form in Spanish. Misformations can be made at the lexical level and at the pronunciation level.
With regard to pronunciation, an error can be due to misformation of a consonant or vowel segment. Sometimes, there is transfer from the mother tongue (L1) or another foreign language (L3):
KRI: está → sentado en un restaurante {%pho: [ʁestɔ'ʁa:nte]} /// Correction: [restau'ɾante] (GERWA2)
At the lexical level, misformations produce a nonexistent word or expression in Spanish. James (1998) distinguished between:
1. Interlinguistic misformations: errors due to L1/L3 interference: calques, borrowings or coinages.
2. Intralinguistic misformations: e.g. 'distortions' (James, 1998: 150) or 'formaciones no atestiguadas en español' (Fernández, 1997: 44). Some affect the morphology of the affix or the word formation pattern in Spanish:
SOR: y es / &eh / ¿ *pesante ? ¿ se &pue ? = <no /// ¿ cómo se> ? +
ENT: [<] <&mm> / pesado /
SOR: [<] <pesado> ///
ENT: ¬ [<] <de digerir> /// [Correction: pesado] (ENGWB1_2)
Other intralinguistic misformations produce a word that is formally similar to the correct one (recognizable in Spanish):
FIN: [<] <y> pues en Inglaterra estoy en *trecero {%pho: [tɹe'seɹo]} [Correction: tercero] (ENGMB1)
Lexical misformations reflect the creative process of learning/acquiring a second language.
It is an incorrect choice due to confusion between linguistic elements.
At the pronunciation level, learners may use a sound from Spanish, instead of the correct sound:
NUN: no / no me {%pho: [mi]} gusta mucho [Correction: /me/] (PORMA2)
At the lexical or grammar level, learners may substitute an incorrect word for a correct word:
REM: *mirar la televisión / es muy muy muy útil [Correction: ver] (FREMB1)
MSU: se tarda / solo / treinta minutos / *a ir a Tokio [Correction: se tarda en] (JAPWB1_2)
Learners may delete words or phonemes in the L2.
At the pronunciation level, phonemes can be dropped. For example, German learners usually delete vowels and consonants (due to the German speech rhythm):
THO: en *derecho {%pho: ['dɾʧo]} tenemos […] Correction: [de'ɾeʧo] (GERMA2)
At the grammar level, a word can be deleted. For example, Chinese, Polish or Japanese learners tend to omit articles because their L1 lacks this category:
MAR: y Ø camarero también está muy contento /// [Correction: el] (JAPWB1_2)
N
The incorrect use of infinitive, gerund or participle may cause grammar errors. In addition, learners may use a non-finite verb form instead of a finite form (or vice versa):
LUQ: &mm / y si → / todavía no he [/] no me comprende /
ENT: sí ///
LUQ: ¬ hhh {%act: click} y [/] *escribir la → letra en [/] en [/] en el papel (CHIMB1) [Correction: escribo]
This category includes grammar errors affecting the general use of prepositions. There are meanings or notions that can be systematically related to certain prepositions: e.g. de expresses origin, and en indicates place.
For errors concerning prepositional complements of verbs, adjectives or adverbs, or prepositions in idioms, see idiomatic preposition errors.
Sonsoles Fernández's criterion (1997: 159) was followed to distinguish between general and idiomatic use of prepositions.
REM: yo fui hace siete años *en Salamanca /// (FREMB1) [Correction: fui a]
Number errors affect the selection of singular or plural.
Some number errors occur at the lexical level. In this project, number is considered a feature of the noun. Indeed, the use of singular instead of plural can change the meaning of certain nouns. For example, la compra (in singular) refers to the action of buying all the things which are necessary for home (‘to do the shopping’), whereas las compras or compras (in plural) refer to anything bought (e.g. clothes or presents).
AIS: tienes &m [/] menos dinero &q [/] de tus padres para *hacer las compras (ENGWA2) [Correction: hacer la compra]
In this context, the error is caused by incorrect use of plural. Number agreement is correct (the determiner agrees in plural with the noun).
Number errors may be interlinguistic when there is transfer from the mother tongue (L1) or another language (L3). For example, French or English learners may say *las gentes, because the equivalent word is plural in their L1 (le gens sont…, people are…). Number errors can also be due to intralinguistic causes such as a false hypothesis.
Number agreement errors are distinguished from these types of lexical errors. Number agreement errors are made when the determiner or the adjective does not agree with the noun, and related to grammar:
MSU: [<] <y> / los dos &e [/] *hombre / &ah / parecen / muy / *triste /// [Correction: hombres ... tristes] (JAPWB1_2)
Other number errors occur at the grammar level. Learners (especially if their L1 lacks of plural marking) may use the singular when referring to a plurality:
MAN: podría buscar / *español / para hacer como → &cam [/] cambio <de lengua> /// [Correction: españoles] (JAPWB1_1)
Finally, other number errors at the grammar level are due to incorrect plural form (incorrect plural suffix):
JUS: he hecho una apresentaçao de *trabajoes [Correction: trabajos] (PORWA2_2)
Grammar errors of number agreement occur when a noun or a pronoun do not agree with the adjective, the determiner, or the modifier in singular or plural:
MSU: [<] <y> / los dos &e [/] *hombre / &ah / parecen / muy / *triste /// [Correction: hombres ... tristes] (JAPWB1_2)
Errors in number assignment (i.e. incorrect selection of singular/plural feature of the noun) were not included among number agreement errors. Number assignment errors may change the meaning of a noun (see Number errors):
AIS: tienes &m [/] menos dinero &q [/] de tus padres para hacer *las compras [Correction: hacer la compra] (ENGWA2)
P
Grammar errors in the passive voice are usually due to unnecessary use of the periphrastic construction (ser/estar + participle). This structure is not frequent in oral Spanish, unlike other languages such as English:
*AMA: el primero creo que es una / paella / e → / *es hecha con / arroz [Correction: está hecha / se hace] (PORWB1)
The passive with se ('pasiva refleja') is more natural in oral Spanish.
Confusions between past verb forms may cause grammar errors.
Some errors occur when the preterite (indefinite preterite, simple past, 'pretérito indefinido' or 'pretérito perfecto simple') is used instead of the imperfect ('pretérito imperfecto'):
REM: antes // no sé hace → veinte años / treinta años // las mujeres no → *trabajaron + [Correction: trabajaban] (FREMB1)
(The imperfect should have been used to express a past habit or to describe past events)
Vice versa, learners may incorrectly use the imperfect (instead of the preterite) to express a punctual event in the past:
MAR: y mi último clase *era / también / un año [/] hace de un &a [/] un / año y media [Correction: fue] (DUTWA2_2)
Errors can also appear when the preterite perfect (present perfect or 'pretérito perfecto') is used instead of the indefinite preterite. Italian, German or French learners may commit these errors due to interlinguistic influence:
ALE: para → &mm [/] para &mm [/] para / volver a [/] a buscarlo &eh *hemos perdido el [/]
ENT: el <autobús> ///
ALE: ¬ [<] <el> autobús /// [Correction: perdimos] (ITAMB1)
Lastly, errors may occur when pluperfect and indefinite preterite (past perfect or 'pretérito pluscuamperfecto') are confounded:
LIU: luego → / *había llegado en → Madrid // (CHIWA2_1)
[Correction: llegué]The pronoun se has many functions in Spanish and this causes many grammar errors.
The following were considered errors within this class:
1. Reflexive meaning (se peina el pelo) o reciprocal meaning (Ellas se escriben mensajes por Internet).
2. Reflexive passive (se venden coches).
3. Impersonal constructions (se habla mal de ella).
4. Intensifier (se comió toda la tarta) or aspectual use (se fueron pronto).
5. Expression of involuntary action (se me ha caído).
6. Sustitute of the personal pronoun le: (se lo dio ayer).
7. Intransitive construction of transitive verbs (La tormenta hundió el barco ⇒ El barco se hundió).These types of errors were distinguished from those occurred when the pronoun se is mark of pronominal verb (see pronominal verb).
Errors may affect the third person reflexive pronoun (se) and the rest of forms (me, te, nos, os).
Often, errors may be due to unnecessary pronoun, missing pronoun, or incorrect choice:
*MAR: él no sé [/] no sabe qué [/] qué te [/] qué → *se quiere … (DUTWA2_2)
These errors affect the personal pronoun as mark of pronominal verb. They result from wrong choice of pronoun, unnecessary use, or missing pronoun.
The use of the pronoun may change the meaning of some verbs: e.g. quedar ('to meet') but quedarse ('to stay'), encontrar ('to find') ~ encontrarse ('to meet').
ADC: cuando / &mm la gente se / hhh {%act: breathing} [/] &eh *se quedan → / amigos por ejemplo <en Polonia>
ENT: [<] <sí> ///
ADC: ¬ normalmente van a &c [/] casa de uno <y> + (POLMB1)
Errors on pronominal verbs were distinguished from those involving the pronoun se (see pronoun se ).
R
Register errors normally occur at the pragmatic level when the utterance does not fit the communicative context. They are related to the degree of formality of the discourse (formal or informal).
An incorrect vocabulary item may cause register errors. Additionally, verbal mood may be inappropriate for a certain context. For example, to make a polite request, a learner may incorrectly use the imperative mood:
SOR: oiga // camarero / hhh {%act: laugh} ¿ *dame la cuenta ? (ENGWB1_2) [Correction: me da]
However, the imperative expresses a direct request in Spanish:
S
These lexical errors are due to substitution of a word for another with the same lexical root. For example: Alemania/alemán, confuso/confundido.
MSU: mi vida / está un poco *confundida / pero me gusta mucho /// (JAPWB1_2)
Segments or segmental elements are sounds (in Phonetics, between square brackets []) or phonemes (in Phonology, between slashes //). There are vowel segments and consonant segments.
In this work, errors involving phonetic segments may be due to missing sound, unnecessary sound, incorrect choice, or misformation (i.e. a nonexistent sound in Spanish).
DAN: tengo que solicitar / el / *visado {%pho: [pi'sado]} /// Correction: [bi'saðo] (CHIWB1)
Confusions between semantically related words are source of errors at the lexical level.
Sonsoles Fernández (1997: 72-73) calls them lexemas con semas comunes pero no intercambiables en el contexto ('lexemes with common semes but not interchangeable in the context'). In this analysis, three types were observed:
1. Confusions between words from the same semantic field (often, nouns or adjectives):
STE: &eh comían / &ah / &ah la comida muy [/] muy *salud / pero / <&eh> +
ENT: [<] <sana> ///
STE: ¬ &m [/] muy sana /// (DUTMA2)
2. Neutralization of semantic oppositions: for example, ver/mirar ('to see'/'to look at'), hablar/decir ('to speak'/'to say'), ir/venir/volver ('to go'/'to come'/'to return'), or gustar/querer ('to like'/'to want').
REM: *mirar la televisión / es muy muy muy útil [Correction: ver] (FREMB1)
Semantic neutralizations occur when a word in the learner's L1 (or L3) may express two different senses in Spanish (and vice versa). U. Weinreich called this divergent polysemy or interlingual assymmetry in his book Languages in contact (1953) (see James, 1998: 149).
For example, the confusion between pedir and preguntar is very frequent among learners. Both meanings in Spanish are expressed with the same word in English (to ask), Italian (chiedere) or French (demander):
FRE: después *pregunta la cuenta [Correction: pide] (FREWA2)
3. Sense relation errors: when a word is substituted for another word which bears a semantic relationship (e.g. hyponymy, hyperonymy, metonymy). For example, in the following utterance a Italian learner uses the word ensalada ('salade') to refer to lechuga ('lettuce'):
ENT: [<] ¿ <conoces los> ingredientes ?
ALE: sí /// &b [/] bueno / a ver / *ensalada / la [/] la hamburguesa / &eh &mm […] (ITAMB1)
Grammar errors affecting sentence structure can be caused by several mechanisms:
1. Missing elements (e.g. verbs):
LIU: su restaurante Ø muy bien / muy rico /// [Correction: está] (CHIWA2_2)
2. Unnecessary words or repetition of words in the utterance:
REM: y la mejor fiesta era *como → la última (FREMB1)
AIS: me parece que aquí *que / el hombre está en un restaurante (ENGWA2)
3. Wrong word order:
THO: *no realmente → puedes hablar /// [Correction: realmente no] (GERMA2)
4. Blend of syntactic structures:
DAK: estudio / *algo como se llama / &eh / Estudios de cultura [Possible corrections: algo que se llama / algo como] (POLMA2_2)
Sometimes, the mechanism causing the error is unclear.
The confusion of ser and estar is a type of grammar error in this analysis. Other researchers (e.g. Fernández, 1997) consider this error at the lexical level.
Attributive structures (ser/estar + adjective) are especially problematic:
ALE: *soy satisfecho xxx <xxx> /// [Correction: estoy] (ITAMB1)
The change of stress placement in a word may cause mispronunciations: e.g. esta/está, llegue/llegué, or estudie/estudié.
MSU: con abanico {%pho: [a'βaniko]} (JAPWB1_2)
Correction: abaNIco [aβa'niko]
Learners may commit errors when subject and verb do not agree in first, second or third person.
FRA: cuando no tengo tiempo → &eh *come → &ha [/] <hamburguesa> [Correction: como] (GERWB1_1)
Suprasegmentals or suprasegmental elements characterize the prosody of speech. These components are intonation (e.g. affirmative or interrogative), stress, rhythm, or length of sounds.
Suprasegmental errors may be due to incorrect intonation patterns:
MSU: me / preguntaba como / &ah // ¿ no tienes / otra tarjeta como pasaporte ? ↓ (JAPWB1_2)
Suprasegmental errors may also be caused by incorrect stress placement:
MSU: con abanico {%pho: [a'βaniko]} (JAPWB1_2)
Correction: abaNIco [aβa'niko]
T
This term refers to the type of modification that causes the error:
-Omission.
-Unnecessary use (e.g. repetition of words).
-Misselection or wrong choice.
-Wrong order.
-Blend of structures.
-Misformation (e.g. creating a nonexistent word form).
U
An extra sound (at the word level) or extra word (at the sentence level) may cause errors.
At the pronunciation level, learners may insert a vowel sound between two consonants. Thus, the word may be easier for them to pronounce:
AYA: padres {%pho: [padə'ɹes]} (JAPWA2)
At the grammar level, for example, errors may be due to unnecessary articles:
FAN: quería aprender una [/] *un otro idioma /// (FREWB1)
V
Errors in verbal periphrasis may affect the auxiliary verb (finite form) or the non-finite verb form (infinitive, gerund or participle). For example, incorrect usage of non-finite verb forms:
*AMA: yo tengo un amigo / que es de la Autónoma pero *está a vivir en Brasil (PORWB1) [Correction: está viviendo]
Other errors may be due to unnecessary use or incorrect choice of verbal periphrasis.
W
Wrong order errors are caused by incorrect placement of linguistic elements.
Metathesis occur at the phonetic or formal level. Wrong order of phonemes in a word may cause errors:
LIU: cursos {%pho: ['klusos]} Correction: ['kuɾsos] (CHIWA2_1)
At the grammar level, incorrect order of phrases and constituents in the sentence may cause errors:
THO: *no realmente → puedes hablar [Correction: realmente no] (GERMA2)
References
Crystal, D. (2000) Diccionario de Lingüística y Fonética. Madrid: Octaedro.
Fernández, S. (1997) Interlengua y análisis de errores en el aprendizaje del español como lengua extranjera. Edelsa: Grupo Didascalia.
Hernández Fernández, A. (2004) Los errores lingüísticos. Colección Logopedia e Intervención. Fundamentos. Valencia: Nau Llibres.
James, C. (1998) Errors in Language Learning and Use. Exploring Error Analysis. London/New York: Longman. Applied Linguistics and Language Study Series.
Martín Zorraquino, Mª. A., and J. Portolés (1999) «Los marcadores del discurso». In I. Bosque and V. Demonte (dirs.). Gramática descriptiva de la lengua española, chapter 63. Madrid: Espasa Calpe.
Seco, M., O. Andrés, and G. Ramos (1999) Diccionario del español actual. Madrid: Santillana/Aguilar Lexicografía.
VV. AA. Diccionario de términos clave de ELE. http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/diccio_ele/